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Centers of Power Notes Chapter 2 Political science CBSE Class 12

CBSE Class 12 Contemporary World Politics (political science) Chapter Notes Centers of Power
16 April 2025 by
Akash Kumar

Centers of Power Notes Chapter 2 Political science CBSE Class 12

CBSE Class 12 Contemporary World Politics (political science) Chapter Notes Centers of Power

Introduction

As the cold war’s icy grip thawed, a new world order emerged, shaped by distinct political structures that would forever alter the global landscape. The European union, which earlier was an economic union, emerged as as powerful political entity, championing peace and stability in the region. ASEAN ignited a beacon of cooperation in Southeast Asia, bridging economic, political and cultural divides. China's economic boom changed the game globally, affecting its relationship with india and others. Despite the challenges, there are efforts to promote peace, cultural exchange, and economic cooperation- showing how these structures are shaping international relations. 


The Rise of Different Political Structures

The dissolution of Cold War in the early 1990s, heralded the emergence of novel centres of economic and political influnece, thereby challenging the United States' long-standing global hegemony. This period witnessed the inception of pivotal political entities, notably the European Union, and ASEAN in Europe and Asia respectively. 

European Union

In a world where unity is a strength, European Union stands tall as a cooperation of 27 nations. It has its headquarter in Brussels, Belgium. Together, they forge a path of economic and political harmony, bounded by the ties of membership and guiding principles of their foundational treatise. All the members of the EU share a common currency, and national anthem with a unified voice in foreign policy and a shared vision for trade. 

Impact of the Second World War on Europe

  • Europe suffered as an aftermath of second world war. However through the Marshall plan, US provided financial aid for the European integration and development of the region. 
  • As EU’s foundation was laid, it was decided that it would share a common currency, ,unified security and foreign policy and cooperation on justice and home affair. 
  • Subsequently, EU underwent a transformative process, evolving from an economic union to a politico-economic entity, exhibiting characteristics similar to a Nation-state having its own flag, anthem and currency. 
  • There were attempts to expand EU’s influence through alliances, however this task haven't been easy because some aren't too keen on joining. 
  • Despite this, in 2022, it extended an historic invitation to Ukraine amidst the raging Russia-Ukraine conflict. 


Marshall Plan

After the end of World War two, US came up with the Marshall Plan, to help European countries to get back on feet. Marshall plan was introduced by Former US secretary of state Geaorge Marshall in 1947, as an economic aid initiative designed to support war-torn European Nations in their recovery efforts. The plan allocated a substantial $13 billion to facilitate the development and reconstruction of these countries. Between 1947 to 1951, the Marshall plan played a crucial role in shaping the post war economic landscape of Europe, yielding significant improvements in the economic condition of the recipient countries. 

  • The Treaty of Paris fascilitated the establishment of the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) in 1948, aimed at helping western european nations to cooperate together on economics and trade matters. 
  • In 1949, the establishment of council of Europe and NATO amped up political cooperation and security in the region. 
  • Following the disintegration of Soviet union in 1992, the Treaty of Maastricht paved the way for the establishment of European Union. 

EU's Influence

The EU extended considerable economic, political and diplomatic influnece on the global stage. 

  • Economically, EU’s economy surpassed the United States' boasting a GDP exceeding $12 dollars. The Euro emerged as a significant economic force, rivaling the dominance of US dollar. Furthermore, the EU played a substantial role in global trade, with a trade share three times larger than that of United States. 
  • Politically, the EU’s significant diplomatic influnece was largely attributed to the permanent seats held by two of its member states, the United Kingdom and France, in the UN security council. Additionally, these members also occupied non-permanent seats enabling them to shape certain US Policies, notably those concerning Iran’s nuclear program. 
  • The EU’s Military Strength is notable as it's armed forces are ranked second on the global scale. Furthermore, The EU’s defence spending was the second highest globally, while both UK and France maintained substantial nuclear arsenals. Additionally, EU also has notable presence in space and communication technology. 

However, the EU is suffering some serious challenges, one of which includes Brexit in 2020, when the UK decided to walk out of EU.  Moreover, there's an issue if divergent foreign policies among members and skepticism towards Euro as a common currency known as Euro-Skepticism. 


Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

Headquarters: Jakarta, Indonesia

  • The Association of Southeast Asian Nation (ASEAN) is a regional organization headquartered at Jakarta, Indonesia, dedicated to promoting, cooperation and integration among its member states and other Asian nations across various dimensions, including Economic, political, security, military, and socio-cultural. 
  • Founded in 1967, through the Bangkok declaration, signed by indonesia, Malaysia, Philliphines, Thailand, ASEAN has since expanded to include Brunei Darussalam, Vietnam, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Myanmar (Burma) ans Cambodia, comprising a total of 10 member states. 
  • Historically, the ASEAN has been standing strong against the backdrop of region forever changed by the colonial legacy of European and Japanese powers. 

Primary Goals of ASEAN

ASEAN have established multifaceted set of objectives aimed at 

  • Boosting economic growth.
  • Working towards social progress and cultural development. 
  • Ensuring peace and stability in the region guided by the principles enshrined in United Nations Charter. 

ASEAN's Three Pillars

  • ASEAN Security Community: it works towards prevention of twrritorial from disputes escalating into conflicts with member states commuting yo peace, security, cooperation and respect for national rights. 
  • ASEAN Economic Community: it created a shared market production system to boost social and economic growth. They also set up free trade areas, which helped them negotiate with big economic like US and China. 
  • ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community: it works toward preserving cultural diversity, promoting promoting mutual respect and building a unified community. 

In 2003, ASEAN bought all these goals under one umbrella, promoting cooperation and integration in southeast asia.


ASEAN 2020 Vision

Imagine a region where peace reigns, conflicts are resolved through dialogues and prosperity is shared by all. This is the bold vision of ASEAN 2020, adopted in 1997. It's key objective includes promoting dialogue as a means of conflict resolution, establishing nuclear free zone and fostering economic cooperation to drive equitable and sustainable growth.

Furthermore, the vision emphasises the importance of multilateral trade agreements in expanding global trade, cultivating a thriving economic zone and ensuring equal opportunities for growth, regardless of gender, race, religion, language or cultural background. 

BRICS

BRIC was founded in Russia back in 2006. South Africa became its member in 2009 in its first meeting, tranforming BRIC into BRICS. 

 BRICS is a powerful alliance of five Nations namely Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa, working together to make a mark on the world and enhance their global influence, and create a fairer international order. 

The 11th BRICS Confernece wrapped up in Brazil in 2019, with Brazil President Jair Bolsonaro at the helm.

Objectives:

  • Economic Synergy: BRICS is committed to fostering economuc synergy among its member states. This is the vision of BRICS, an alliance that's redefining the global economic landscape. 
  • Sustainable development: a key focus area is sustainable development, with emphasis on infrastructure development and addressing pressing global challenges like poverty and inequality.
  • Financial Independence: BRICS aims to enhance financial independence through initiatives like New Development Bank, reducing reliance on traditional financial institutions.

Achievements:

  • BRICS also aims to improve collaboration in area of trade, investment, technology and sustainable development.
  • In 2014, New Development Bank was established with tr aim of supporting infrastructure projects an financial cooperation. 


Challenges:

  • One of the challenge is finding a common ground and ensuring consensus building, because of differing priorities and disparities. 
  • Reaching a collective agreement on diverse issues demands meticulous negotiations and compromise, fostering a spirit of cooperation mutual understanding.

The Rise of Chinese Economy

China's economy has grown incredibly fast since 1978, making it one of the world's fastest- growing economies. In fact, expert think china might even surpass US as the world's biggest economy by 2040. China also become a major player in east Asia's economy, giving it more regional power. 

History & Background

  • In the aftermath of Mao Zedong’s communist revolution in 1949, china embraced the Soviet model as a framework for economic development. This resulted into establishment of state owned heavy industry, subsidized by agricultural revenue. 
  • However this model ultimately proved to be ineffective, characterized by sluggish economic growth and rapid population expansion. Furthermore, the agricultural sector failed to generate the requisite industrial surplus. 
  • In 1972, China stablished diplomatic relations with the United States, thereby opening it's economy and ending its political and economic isloation. At the same time, China tried a new approach to grow it's economy by importing capital and technology to increase productivity. 
  • The follwing year,1973, saw the formulation of the four modernisation plan, a comprehensive framework encompassing modernisation initiatives in agriculture, military, science, technology and industry. 
  • The implementation of China's ‘Open Door Policy’ in 1978 further facilitated the gradual opening up of the economy. 
  • Agriculture became privatised in 1982. Soon the industrial sector was liberalised. In order to attarct foreign investments, Special Economic Zones (SEZs) were established, which offered trade barrier exemptions. 

Results

  • China's novel economic policies yielded a seminal breakthrough, effectively ending the era of stagnation.
  • The privisation of agriculture proved particularly beneficial, leading to a significant increase in agricultural output and rural income. 
  • With time, people's personal savings imcreased which contributed to the economic growth, particularly in rural economies. 
  • The establishment of SEZs and implementation of new trade regulations also fascilitated a marked expansion in international trade with China emerging as premier destination for Foreign Direct Investment. 
  • China's large foreign exchange reserves allowed it to make significant investment abraod. Joining WTO in 2001 was a breakthrough, showing that how much China has become a part of global economy. 
  • However, the rapid economic growth showed consequences in form of environmental challenges, and increasing divide between the rural, urban and inland provinces. 
  • As China's global influnece expanded, nations like Japan, United States, ASEAN,and Russia, grew increasingly uneasy. 
  • However, China helped ASEAN economies recover from 1997 financial crises, which helped alleviate some of these concerns. 

Sino-Indo Relations

In the Asian history, india and China stood tall with unchallenged power, prestige and influence, before the advent of western imperialism. 

  • China ensured strong control within its border through its tributary system, while India's kingdom used politics, economics and culture to spread their influence. 
  • Even though india and China have had their share of disagreements, after they both got independence, there was a sense of hope that they could work together to shape Asia's future. 

Military/Border Conflict

  • Both the nations have been involved in border dispures with each other. They have used joining military exercised like “Hand in Hand” to improve their relations and ensure harmony along the borders.  
  • When China occupied Tibet, a sino- India border dispute emerged. A war broke out between India and China in 1962 because of border disputes in Arunachal Pradesh and Aksai chin area.
  • Even though the war resulted into a strained relationship between the two nations, the leaders of both the sides have worked towards improving these relations. 
  • In 1981, talks began between India and China to resolve border issues, which led to more economic and political cooperation in the post cold-war era. 
  • The visit of indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi marked a pivotal moment in bilateral relations. Efforts were made to ensure peace and stability across the borders. 
  • With time, the bilateral trade has increased between the two nations. Both of them are also working together and showing cooperation in the economic institutions like WTO.

Positive Aspects

  • China's shift towards pragmatism in 1970s helped improve relations with India. The popular slogan “hindi chini bhai bhai” captures the spirit of friendship between rge two nations. 
  • Talks to resolve border dispute started in 1981, and since the cold war ended, india and China have been working together on political and economic fronts. Both countries see themselves as rising powers in Asia and globally. 
  • Indian prime minister Rajiv Gandhi's visit to China in 1988, was a significant moment in improving realtions. And both the governments have since worked to ensure peace along their shared borders. 
  • India and China have been working together by signing agreements on cultural exchanges, science, technology and trade. This has boosted bilateral trade between the two. 
  • They are also collaborating on energy deals, and working together in international organisation like WTO. 
  • They are working together to prevent any future conflicts and find a common ground for energy deals. 
  • India's 1998 nuclear test, sparked in part by fears of China's growing power, didn't derail their fragile friendship. 
  • Although, China's military partnership with Bangladesh and Myanmar raised some eyebrows in india, regular visits by leaders and officials helped bridge gap. 
  • Better transportation and communication links, plus shared economic goals and global worries have all contributed to a more stable and friendly relationship between the two nations.


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